Uses Of Corn
Corn (Zea mays L.) is an important crop used as a human food source, animal feed, and as a raw material in industry. The food uses of corn, in addition to the human consumption of corn kernels, include products of both the dry milling and wet milling industries. The principal products of dry milling include grits, meal and flour. The principal products of wet milling include starch, syrups, and dextrose. A by product of both dry and wet milling is corn oil, which is recovered from corn germ. As animal feed, corn is used primarily as a feedstock for beef cattle, dairy cattle, swine, poultry, and fish.
Industrial uses of corn mainly consist of the use of corn starch produced by wet milling and corn flour produced by dry milling and the whole kernel fermentation for production of food-grade and industrial use ethanol. The industrial applications of corn starch and flour are based on their functional properties, such as viscosity, film formation ability, adhesiveness, absorbent properties and ability to suspend particles. Corn starch and flour are used in the paper and textile industries, and as components in adhesives, building materials, foundry binders, laundry starches, sanitary diapers, seed treatments, explosives, and oil-well muds. Plant parts other than the corn kernels are also used in industry. For example, stalks and husks can be made into paper and wallboard, and corn cobs can be used for fuel and to make charcoal.
Principles of Conventional Plant Breeding
Virtually all of the commercial corn produced in the United States is produced from hybrid seed. The production of hybrid seed first requires the development of elite corn inbred lines that possess good combining ability to produce agronomically superior hybrids. The majority of hybrid seed produced in the United States is of the single cross type, wherein two inbred lines are intermated, or crossed, to produce what is termed an F.sub.1 single cross hybrid. The resulting kernels from this intermating are then sold as seed to commercial growers who plant the seed and harvest the second generation, or F.sub.2 grain, for use on farm or for commercial sale.
The production of a conventional single cross hybrid seed involves controlling the direction of pollination from one inbred to the other to assure the production of predominantly hybrid (cross pollinated) seed. Typically directed pollination is accomplished by interplanting separate rows of female corn plants with male corn plants. The female corn plants that are male sterile may be produced by genetic mechanisms which render the corn tassel nonfunctional or by detasseling the plants in the field.
The development of corn hybrids requires the development of homozygous inbred lines or uniform synthetic populations of unique heterotic background, the crossing of these lines or synthetic populations, and evaluation of test crosses. Pedigree breeding and recurrent selection breeding programs are used to develop inbred lines and synthetic populations from breeding populations. Breeding programs combine desirable traits from two or more inbred lines or various broad-based sources into breeding pools from which new inbred lines or synthetic populations are developed by inbreeding or random mating and selection of desired phenotypes. The new inbreds and/or synthetic lines are crossed with other inbred lines and/or synthetic populations and the hybrids from these crosses are evaluated to determine which have commercial value and agronomic usefulness.
Pedigree breeding starts with the crossing of two genotypes, each of which may have one or more desirable characteristics that is lacking in the other or which complements the other. If the two original genotypes do not provide all of the desired characteristics, other sources can be included during the breeding. In the pedigree breeding method, superior plants are selfed or random mated and the resulting seed selected in successive generations. Pedigree records of ancestry are carefully maintained for each family and ear row selection through succeeding generations. In the succeeding generations, the heterozygous condition of the corn germplasm gives way to homozygous true breeding lines as a result of inbreeding and selection. Typically in the pedigree method of breeding, five or more generations of inbreeding and selection is practiced: F.sub.1 to F.sub.2 ; F.sub.2 to F.sub.3 ; F.sub.3 to F.sub.4 ; F.sub.4 to F.sub.5, etc.
Backcrossing can be used to improve an inbred line by transferring a specific desirable trait from one inbred or source to another inbred that lacks that trait. This can be accomplished, for example, by first crossing a superior inbred (recurrent parent) to a donor inbred (nonrecurrent parent). The donor inbred carries (donates) the appropriate gene(s) for the desired trait to the next generation. After five or more backcross generations with selection for the desired trait, the inbred will be heterozygous for loci controlling the characteristic being transferred, but will be like the superior parent for most or almost all other genes. The last backcross generation can be selfed to produce a pure breeding progeny for the gene(s) being transferred.
An important consequence of the homozygosity and homogeneity of the inbred lines is that the hybrid between any two inbreds will always be the same. Once the inbreds or synthetics that give the best hybrid have been identified, the hybrid seed can be reproduced indefinitely as long as the homogeneity of the inbred or synthetic parents is maintained.
A synthetic hybrid consists of an array of similar genotypes that were identified from intercross tests and bulked into a random mating population having a desired phenotype. The intercrosses between two different heterotic groups results in the continuous production of a specific synthetic hybrid of desired phenotype.
As previously noted, a single cross hybrid is produced when two unrelated inbred or synthetic lines are crossed to produce the F.sub.1 progeny. A three-way cross hybrid is produced from three inbred lines (or synthetics) where two of the inbred lines (or synthetics) are crossed (A.times.B) and then the resulting F.sub.1 hybrid is crossed with the third inbred (or synthetics) (A.times.B)XC. A double cross hybrid is produced from four inbred lines (or synthetics) by crossing pairs (A.times.B) and (C.times.D) and then crossing the two F.sub.1 hybrids (A.times.B).times.(C.times.D).
Much of the hybrid vigor exhibited by F.sub.1 hybrids is lost in the next generation (F.sub.2). Consequently, seed (grain) from hybrid varieties is not used for planting stock.
The objective of typical plant breeding is to combine in a single variety/hybrid the desirable traits of the parental lines. For field crops such as corn, these desirable traits may include resistance to diseases, insects, herbicide tolerance, and tolerance to heat and drought, reducing time to crop maturity, and improved agronomic quality. With mechanical harvesting of many crops, uniformity of plant characteristics such as germination time and stand establishment, growth rate, and fruit/seed size are also desirable.
The problem with conventional breeding techniques is that there are several grain quality traits, such as high oil content, that cannot readily be combined in a high-yielding single cross hybrid. By contrast, synthetic hybrids, such as the one described herein, when used as a pollinator in the TOPCROSS.RTM. grain production system, can impart desirable grain quality characteristics, such as high oil content, to the resulting F.sub.1 grain without significant loss of yield.
Synthetic Varieties
Corn has male flowers, located on the tassel, and female flowers, located on the ear, of the same plant. Because of this monoecy, corn plants can be bred by both self-pollination and cross-pollination techniques. Corn is self-pollinated if pollen from one flower is transferred to the same or another flower on the same plant. Corn is cross-pollinated if the pollen comes from a flower on a different plant.
Plants that have been self-pollinated and selected for uniform type over many generations become homozygous at almost all gene loci and produce a uniform population of true breeding progeny. Cross pollination between two homozygous lines produces a uniform population of hybrid plants that nevertheless may be heterozygous for many gene loci. A cross between two plants that are each heterozygous for a number of gene loci will produce a population of hybrid plants that differ genetically and will not be uniform.
Natural pollination occurs when wind blows pollen from tassels to silks that protrude from tops of the incipient ears on plants of the same genotype and different genotype, resulting in both self- and cross-pollination. When a population of genotypes are combined from all possible intercrosses among a number of selected genotypes and are allowed to open pollinate, the result is called a synthetic variety. A synthetic variety is made up of genotypes which previously have been tested for their ability to produce a superior progeny when crossed in all combinations.
Corn plants may be maintained as an outcrossing synthetic population that is much less homogeneous than a self-pollinated group. Every plant in such a group is certain to be heterozygous at many or most loci, and this heterozygosity must either be maintained during a breeding program or restored at the end of the program, if productivity is to be satisfactory. The main requirement in maintaining a synthetic line is that a sufficient number of plants of heterozygous background be maintained to recover the gene frequencies that are desired for the synthetic population so as to prevent genetic drift toward undesired gene frequencies.
The Desirability of High Oil Content Grain
The concentration of oil in most varieties of corn ranges from less than 3.0 percent to 4.5 percent at 0% moisture. Embryos of ordinary corn can contain 30 percent oil, while embryos of high oil corn strains can contain as much as 50 percent oil and are much larger in size than ordinary corn embryos.
There are several reasons for wanting to develop a method for growing corn that is high in oil content. First, corn oil is a premium oil and regularly more valuable than starch, the other major component of corn kernels. Second, high oil corn possesses a higher available energy content than ordinary corn, and thus is a more valuable feed for poultry and livestock. In animal feeding trials it has been found that less high oil corn is required per unit of gain than is required with ordinary corn. In addition, high oil corn requires substantially less soybean meal to balance a typical animal diet, and may be used to replace oil containing additives in animal feed.
Additional impetus was given to breeding corn for high oil by the development of wide-line nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) as analytical tools for the nondestructive analysis of bulk or single kernel samples that can be carried out in as little as two seconds. The development of such tools made it much easier and much quicker to determine the oil content of grain, thereby encouraging experimentation in the area of breeding for high oil.
Thus there exists at present a growing market for corn having high oil, increased protein and other special end-use properties which is not met by corn of standard composition. The diverse types of corn available to plant breeders provides a potential for modification of quality and quantity of grain protein, starch, and oil. Corn now can be developed to more precisely meet the specific nutritional requirements of animals or to meet particular industrial needs.
The TOPCROSS.RTM. Grain Production System
Unfortunately, high oil is a property that cannot readily be achieved in a high yielding single-cross hybrid. This is because oil content, while being a moderately heritable trait, is influenced by a series of oil genes that have additive effects on oil content and occur at a complex of loci in at least eight linkage groups that influence the amount of oil in the grain progeny. obtaining a hybrid having all or most of these oil genes can take many years of breeding. Further increasing the difficulty of breeding for high oil content is the fact that the grain yield of higher oil hybrids is generally inferior when compared to elite dent corn hybrids.
A method of producing a high yield of corn having high oil content without requiring years of breeding is described in Bergquist et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,704,160. The primary aspect of this method, known as the TOPCROSS.RTM. grain production system, is the interplanting of a pollinator corn plant possessing the characteristics for significantly increasing oil and protein levels in the resulting grain with a male sterile hybrid corn plant. The resulting grain possesses an oil content much higher than would be expected for self- or cross-pollination of the fertile version of the hybrid corn plant.
In practice, the seed of the pollinator with improved grain quality traits is blended in small amounts with seed of an elite male sterile grain parent hybrid, but with sufficient pollinator seed to permit abundant pollen production for fertilization of the male sterile grain parent hybrid. The relatively low ratio of pollinator seed to male sterile grain parent seed (less than one pollinator plant to every three grain parent plants) takes advantage of the higher grain yield potential of the elite grain parent hybrid while assuring a sufficient population of pollinator plants to pollinate the male sterile grain parent plants.
Need for Superior Pollinators
Critical to the success of the TOPCROSS.RTM. grain production system is the use of a pollinator capable of enhancing the grain quality traits of the F.sub.1 offspring. To obtain such pollinators, the corn breeder must select and develop corn plants that have the traits that result in superior inbred and synthetic parental lines.
The pollinator for the TOPCROSS.RTM. grain production system need not be genetically homozygous (inbred) or even uniform in appearance, and need not be selected for genetic combining ability with female plants. However, the pollinator should have uniform desirable grain quality characteristics, such as high oil, that will influence the grain quality characteristics of the F.sub.1 offspring, and the ability to pollinate the female plants. A hybrid obtained by crossing two synthetic populations of different heterotic backgrounds results in a synthetic hybrid with predictable heterozygosity and genetic variability among plants that is particularly useful as a male pollinator in blends with male sterile hybrid grain parents in the TOPCROSS.RTM. grain production system. Some genetic variability is desirable because it extends the flowering period of the pollinator. P67 was developed to achieve these characteristics.
Advantages of Synthetic Hybrids
The use of synthetic hybrids (such as P67) as TOPCROSS.RTM. grain production system pollinators affords a number of advantages over the use of inbreds, hybrids produced from single crosses, or hybrids produced from three way crosses. For instance, synthetic hybrids can be developed more rapidly than commercial hybrids. Specifically, the use of a synthetic population can more rapidly establish stability of dominant oil genes, thus by-passing the many generations of inbreeding that is required to produce inbreds for making single cross hybrids.
Second, synthetic hybrids often have excellent vigor comparable to that of commercial hybrids. Inbreds, by contrast, typically lose vigor with each successive generation of inbreeding. This is an important advantage of synthetics because pollinator vigor is critical for ample pollen shed at the time of silking in the TOPCROSS.RTM. grain production system. Synthetic hybrid P67 expresses cold vigor in seedling growth stages greater than even most open pollinated synthetic populations.
Third, a synthetic variety, utilizing heterosis in which pollination control is a factor, is more likely to disperse pollen over a longer period of time than a single cross hybrid. The predictable greater variability of synthetic varieties as compared with single crosses permits more flexibility to meet the changing growing conditions typical of field production. In addition, because of the longer flowering period, fewer synthetic pollinators need be developed to be used in blends with many different grain parents.
Fourth, the synthetic hybrid pollinator is more easily produced during periods of heat and drought stress on dryland production than a single-cross hybrid using less vigorous inbred seed stocks. For example, in non-irrigated dryland field tests conducted during 1993 and 1994, production of synthetic hybrid seed remained relatively constant at about 55 bushels per acre despite the fact that rainfall accumulation during the critical months of May, June and July fell from 40.84 cm in 1993 to 13.82 cm in 1994. Over the same period, single cross seed production using inbred seed stocks fell to less than 25 bushels per acre in 1994 from 55 bushels per acre in 1993.
Fifth, the single cross synthetic hybrid pollinator which results from the cross of two parental synthetic populations, A.times.B, is more quickly produced in a single generation compared to a three-way cross pollinator (A.times.B)C that requires an additional plant generation to produce the hybrid three-way cross pollinator. For example, the A.times.B synthetic hybrid is simply produced in a single plant growing generation in the production of P67 single-cross synthetic hybrid while the three-way cross synthetic hybrid pollinator would require an additional plant generation to produce the final hybrid (A.times.B) crossed to the parental C-population to produce a synthetic three-way hybrid cross designated (A.times.B)C.